Theory Review: Anxiety in Learning - Amanda Sabo

Name	Commented On
Amanda Sabo	Arthur d'Auteuil

Anxiety in Learning: Theory Review

Amanda Sabo

Department of Adult and Community Education, Ball State University

EDAC 635: Strategies for Teaching Adults

Dr. Bo Chang

September 25, 2021

 

Main Theoretical Points

Anxiety 

    Anxiety is an emotion, and as such it cannot be avoided (Bigdeli, 2010). However, there is anxiety that is a natural response to a stressful stimulus that helps a person to maintain a state of readiness (Vytal et al., 2013), and pathological anxiety that occurs when the response is out of step with the threat of the stimulus (Robinson et al., 2013). Pathological anxiety can be disruptive and incapacitating (Vytal et al., 2013), which has a detrimental impact on learning, while healthy anxiety can be a motivating or facilitating force (Gkonou, 2020). There are two types of anxiety: anxious arousal (the physiological changes in the body as one experiences anxiety) and anxious apprehension (worry, rumination, fear over the physiological changes) (Vytal et al., 2013). Each of these two types of anxiety can result in behavioral changes in learners that affect the learners’ coping strategies (Vytal et al., 2013). 

Anxiety in Adult Learners 

    Adult learners’ previous experiences with and expectations of learning and with the classroom are one source of anxiety. Even after a stressor has been resolved, the effects of anxiety can be long lasting (Bigdeli, 2010). For example, adult learners may have previously experienced being disempowered in the classroom and worry that it will happen again (Saddington, 1992). Adult learners tend to have higher expectations of their own performance and expect perfection, which leads to more anxiety about their performances and self-worth if they are unable to perform at that high level (Saddington, 1992). 

    Test anxiety is a specific form of performance anxiety that occurs when a learner knows they are being evaluated on their performance (Pekrun, 2006). Test anxiety peaks in higher education, indicating that the importance of the test outcomes to the learner can increase anxiety (Quinn & Peters, 2017). 

Attentional Control Theory 

    Attentional control theory makes a distinction between the goal-directed attentional system and the stimulus-driven attentional system. Anxiety can disrupt the equilibrium between the two systems, resulting in dysfunction of the top-down processes through which cognition occurs (Eysenck et al., 2007). 

    According to Eysenck et al. (2007), high anxiety is often associated with low performance levels. When experiencing anxiety, a learner must contend with attentional bias, meaning that the anxiety has seized control over attentional processes. When this occurs, learners focus their attention on perceived threats rather than information that is important to the learning task at hand (Vytal et al., 2013). Eysenck et al. (2007) goes on to explain that reports have shown that highly anxious participants in several research studies have performed at the same level as participants with low anxiety. The reason given for this disparity is that anxiety hinders the efficiency of one’s performance. The effectiveness of one’s performance is less likely to be impaired by anxiety (though it may be). So while both groups might have the same result, the highly anxious group likely has expended more resources in completing the task. 

Anxiety and Memory 

    According to Vytal el al. (2013), anxiety is disruptive to working memory, and the skills of working memory are intimately related to learning (Gathercole & Alloway, 2008). Working memory allows for quick recall of information and to hold important information in one’s head for a short time. For example, doing an arithmetic problem in one’s head requires working memory (Gathercole & Alloway, 2008). Working memory is also important for students in language-learning classrooms where relevant information is verbalized in a second language (Ortega, 2009). Anxiety has been shown to reduce the spatial and verbal working memory performance in adults (Vytal et al., 2013). Vytal et al. (2013) determined that the lower the cognitive load on verbal working memory, the more likely anxiety caused disruption, suggesting that the attention necessary for performing higher cognitive load tasks overrides anxious feelings. 

Anxiety and Learning Benefits 

    Though negative impacts of anxiety on adult learners exist, anxiety can also increase motivation to study or complete a task and provide a sense of readiness to accomplish difficult tasks, which can be useful during a test where the learner is faced with an unexpected challenge (Gkonou, 2020). 

Applications 

    Because adults bring their previous negative experiences into the classroom that can cause anxiety (Bigdeli, 2010), it is important find ways of reducing already extant anxiety in adult learners rather than preventing it. Some ways to mitigate anxiety in adult learners is to value their previous experiences in the classroom by having classwide discussions about these experiences and framing it as what worked for them and what didn’t. This provides the instructor with valuable insight into their students’ needs. Instructors can also put their students’ mental health at the forefront by having students reflect on how they feel and give them tools for managing anxiety like square breathing, meditation, and positive self-talk strategies (Gkonou, 2020). These suggestions can be applied in different ways depending on the content of the class. For example, they could be used as community building at the beginning of class regardless of content or worked into a writing prompt in a writing class. 

    As explained above, adults experience high levels of test and performance anxiety in the classroom because they have high expectations of themselves (Pekrun, 2006). To aid with test and performance anxiety, instructors can encourage students to create outlines, answer easy questions first in order to increase their confidence, eat healthy, and get a good night’s sleep (Gkonou, 2020). For more generalized performance anxiety, instructors can build failure into the class ethos, by providing low-stakes opportunities to try new and exciting ways of completing assignments, where trying something new and difficult is praised and failure, to some extent, is acceptable as a learning opportunity. 

    Since adult learners can experience attentional bias when they are experiencing anxiety (Vytal et al., 2013), it is important for instructors to recognize it may take those students longer to perform the task. It is also important to reduce classroom distractions that can compound the attentional bias. 

    Vytal et al. (2013) found that working memory is negatively impacted when a person experiences anxiety. This is important for instructors to understand because it affects students’ ability to retrieve and perform. In the case of a verbal performance, the instructor should recognize that the performance may not be indicative of the student’s overall ability (Ortega, 2013). Though there aren’t specific suggestions for how to combat how working memory functions with adult learners, creating a relaxed classroom atmosphere may help. 

Reflection 

Highlights

    The highlights of this research were in realizing the impact that anxiety can have on learners, especially when learning that adult learners have unreasonably high expectations of themselves and an increased fear of failure and perfectionism. I think that the applications are the highlight of my work as I have provided concrete ways to apply these important concepts in the classroom. 

Process

    In order to complete this assignment I used the Ball State and IUPUI databases. When I found an article that seemed particularly helpful and on topic, I reviewed that article’s bibliography. When I found an article that might be helpful in the bibliography, I tried to track it down in OneSearch. Then I printed all of the useful articles and highlighted important information. I read the abstracts, introductions, literature reviews, discussions, and conclusions. I avoided reading much about the constructs of the research being conducted because it is outside of the scope of my knowledge, and I wouldn’t be able to discern anything additional from it.

Main Theoretical Points	Application in Practice for Instructors
Adults' previous experiences cause anxiety in the classroom	Value learner's previous experiences and provide strategies for dealing with anxiety
Adults experience high levels of performance and test anxiety	Create a classroom ethos that encourages trying difficult tasks by using low-stakes assignments. Provide students with strategies for successful test taking.
Anxiety causes attentional bias	Remove distractions during exams and graded activities. Understand it may take some learners longer to complete the same task.
Working memory is impaired by anxiety	Some activities may not accurately demonstrate a learner's ability. Create a relaxed classroom atmosphere.
Some anxiety is useful for accomplishing tasks	Challenge students to do well in the class. Remember every student is different.

Bibliography 

Bigdeli, S. (2010). Affective learning: The anxiety construct in adult learners. Procedia Social and Behavioral Sciences, 9, 674-678.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2010.12.216 

Eysenck, M. W., Derakshan, N., Santos, R., & Calvo, M. G. (2007). Anxiety and cognitive performance: Attentional control theory. Emotion, 7(2), 336-353.
https://doi.org/10.1037/1528-3542.7.2.336 

Gathercole, S.E., & Alloway, T.P. (2008). Working memory and learning: A practical guide for teachers. Sage Publications. 

Gkonou, C. (2020). Test anxiety in adult learners. Cambridge University Press. 

Ortega, L. (2013). Understanding second language acquisition. Routledge. 

Pekrun, R. (2006). The control-value theory of achievement emotions: Assumptions, corollaries, and implications for educational research and practice. Educational Psychology Review 18(4), 315-341.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s10648-006-9029-9 

Quinn, B.L., & Peters, A. (2017). Strategies to reduce nursing student test anxiety: A literature review. Journal of Nursing Education 56(3), 14-151.
https://doi.org/10.3928/01484834-20170222-05 

Robinson, O.J., Vytal, K., Cornwell, B.R., & Grillion, C. (2013). The impact of anxiety upon cognition: Perspectives from human threat of shock studies. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, 7, 203.
https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2013.00203 

Saddington, J. A. (1992). Learner experience: A rich resource learning. Empowerment through Experiential Learning: Explorations of Good Practice. Kogan Page Ltd. 

Vytal, K.E., Cornwell, B.R., Letkiewicz, A.M., Arkin, N.E., & Grillion, C. (2013). The complex interaction between anxiety and cognition: Insight from spatial and verbal working memory. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, 7, 93.
https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2013.00093